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The Glasgow-Maastricht Foot Model (FootGM)
------------------------------------------

.. deprecated:: The Glasgow-Maastricht Foot model is deprecated in AMMR 2.0,
due to some compataility issues with the other updated models. Please use
AMMR 1.6 if you need the FootGM model.

We are actively working on reimplementing the model, so please
`contact us <sales@anybodytech.com>`_ if you are interested in this work.

AnyBody Technology developed in corporation with Glasgow Caledonian
University and University of Maastricht inside the `AFootprint EU project <https://www.afootprint.eu/>`_
a detailed multisegmental foot model, which is fully dynamic and
contains 26 segments representing all the foot bones, muscles,
ligaments, and joints connecting them. The model can be used with the
anatomy and recorded motion from different subjects. It has been
validated versus various other experimental and computational studies.

The foot model includes 26 rigid segments representing all the bones of
the human foot (except the sesamoid bones), namely: Talus, Calcaneus,
Cuboid, Navicular, Medial cuneiform, Intermediate cuneiform, Lateral
cuneiform, First metatarsal, Second metatarsal, Third metatarsal, Fourth
metatarsal, Fifth metatarsal, First proximal phalange, First distal
phalange, Second proximal phalange, Second medial phalange, Second
distal phalange, Third proximal phalange, Third medial phalange, Third
distal phalange, Fourth proximal phalange, Fourth medial phalange,
Fourth distal phalange, Fifth proximal phalange, Fifth medial phalange,
Fifth distal phalange.

It includes the following joints and kinematic constraints:
\ *Talocrural* \ *and Subtalar joint [20],* \ *Talonavicular joint,*
\ *Calcaneocuboid joint,* \ *Medialcuneonavicular joint,*
\ *Intermediate and lateral cuneonavicular joints,* \ *First
tarsometatarsal joint,* \ *Second, third and fourth tarsometatarsal
joints,* \ *Fifth tarsometatarsal joint,* \ *Metatarsophalangeal
joints,* \ *Interphalangeal joints,* \ *Toe flexion rhythm,*
\ *Intertarsal contact,* \ *Metatarsal head contact,* \ *Metatarsal
transverse arch,* \ *Tarsal transverse arch,* \ *Longitudinal medial
arch,* \ *Longitudinal lateral arch.*

The GM-Foot model includes following additional ligaments: Collateral
(tibiotalar anterior, tibiotalar posterior, tibiocalcaneal and
tibionavicular, and the lateral group constituted of the talofibular
anterior, talofibular posterior and talocalcaneal), Deep metatarsal
transverse, Plantar fascia, Long plantar, Calcaneo cuboid plantar,
Calcaneo navicular plantar, Tarsal ligaments ( Talonavicular dorsal,
Bifurcate, Calcaneocuboid dorsal, Cuneonavicular dorsal 1, 2 and 3,
Cuneonavicular plantar 1, 2 and 3, Intercuneiform dorsal 1 and 2,
Cuneocuboid dorsal, Intercuneiform plantar 1 and 2, Cuneocuboid plantar,
Cuboideonavicular dorsal, Cuboideonavicular plantar, Tarsometatarsal
dorsal 1 to 8, Tarsometatarsal plantar 1 to 7, Intermetatarsal dorsal 1,
2 and 3, Intermetatarsal plantar 1, 2 and 3) and Phalangeal ligaments

The muscles of the foot can be divided into two groups: the intrinsic
muscles and the extrinsic muscles. All the extrinsic muscles come from
the TLEM leg model of the AMMR. The intrinsic foot musculature is
constituted of the following muscles:

abductor hallucis (ABDH), flexor hallucis brevis medialis (FHBM) and
lateralis (FHBL), adductor hallucis transverse (ADHT) and oblique
(ADHO), abductor digiti minimi (ABDM), flexor digiti minimi brevis
(FDMB), dorsal interosseous (DI), plantar interosseous (PI), flexor
digitorum brevis (FDB), lumbricals (LB), quadratus plantar medialis
(QPM) and lateralis (QPL), extensor hallucis brevis (EHB), extensor
digitorum brevis (EDB)

More information can be found online:

- **The new Glasgow-Maastricht AnyBody foot model** (Sylvain Carbes,
20. September, 2012) \ `Presentation
<https://www.anybodytech.com/the-new-glasgow-maastricht-anybody-foot-model/>`__ .
This webcast presents a detailed AnyBody musculoskeletal foot model
which includes all bones and joints of a real foot. Developed in
collaboration with Glasgow Caledonian University and University
Hospital Maastricht and referred to as the "Glasgow-Maastricht foot
model" this model can be driven by motion capture data and uses
combined force plate/pressure plate for accurate loading of the
different joints. Built-in scaling allows the user to reproduce
principal foot deformities such as flat foot and hallux valgus. The
high detail level of the model and a built-in scaling protocol allows
the user to investigate a wide range of parameters like joints motion
and load, muscles activation, both in healthy and pathologic feet.

References used as input:

- Arampatzis, S. et al., Strain and elongation of the human
gastrocnemius tendon and aponeurosis during maximal plantarflexion
effort. J Biomech, 38(4):833–841, Apr 2005.

- Arndt, P. et al., Intrinsic foot kinematics measured in vivo during
the stance phase of slow running. J Biomech, 40(12):2672–2678, 2007.

- Bandholm, T et al., Foot medial longitudinal-arch deformation during
quiet standing and gait in subjects with medial tibial stress
syndrome. J Foot Ankle Surg, 47(2):89–95, 2008.

- Bloome, DM et al., Variations on the insertion of the posterior
tibialis tendon: a cadaveric study. Foot Ankle Int, 24(10):780–783,
Oct 2003.

- Cailliet, R. The Illustrated Guide to Functional Anatomy of the
Musculoskel. Sys.. D J R Evans, 2004.

- Cheung, JT et al., Three-dimensional finite element analysis of the
foot during standing–a material sensitivity study. J Biomech,
38(5):1045–1054, May 2005.

- Fernandes, R. et al., Tendons in the plantar aspect of the foot: Mr
imaging and anatomic correlation in cadavers. Skeletal Radiol,
36(2):115–122, Feb 2007.

- Funk, JR et al., Linear and quasi-linear viscoelastic
characterization of ankle ligaments. J Biomech Eng, 122(1):15–22, Feb
2000.

- Kanatli, U. et al., Evaluation of the transverse metatarsal arch of
the foot with gait analysis. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 123(4):148–150,
May 2003.

- Kitaoka, HB, et al., Mat properties of the plantar aponeurosis. Foot
Ankle Int, 15(10):557–560, 1994.

- Kura, H, et al., Quant. analysis of the intrinsic muscles of the
foot. Anat Rec, 249(1):143–151,1997.

- Lundberg and O.K. Svensson. The axes of rotation of the talocalcaneal
and talonavicular joints. The Foot, 3(2):65 – 70, 1993.

- Lundgren, P, et al., Invasive in vivo measurement of rear-, mid- and
forefoot motion during walking. Gait Posture, 28(1):93–100, Jul 2008.

- MacWilliams, BA, et al., Foot kinematics and kinetics during
adolescent gait. Gait Posture, 17(3):214–224, Jun 2003.

- Mengiardi, B, et al., Spring ligament complex: Mr imaging-anatomic
correlation and findings in asymptomatic subjects. Radiology,
237(1):242–249, Oct 2005.

- Moraes do Carmo, CC, et al., Anatomical features of plantar
aponeurosis: cadaveric study using ultrasonography and magnetic
resonance imaging. Skeletal Radiol, 37(10):929–935, Oct 2008.

- Netter, FH. Atlas der Anatomie des Menschen 3nd. Georg Thieme Verlag
Stuttgart, 2003.

- Pastore, D, et al., Complex distal insertions of the tibialis
posterior tendon: detailed anatomic and mr imaging investigation in
cadavers. Skeletal Radiol, 37(9):849–855, Sep 2008.

- Patil, V. et al. Morphometric dimensions of the calcaneonavicular
(spring) ligament. Foot Ankle Int, 28(8):927–932, Aug 2007.

- Patil, V. et al., Anatomical variations in the insertion of the
peroneus (fibularis) longus tendon. Foot Ankle Int, 28(11):1179–1182,
Nov 2007.

- Picard, M et al., orthopedic physical assessment 3rd edition (1997)
wb saunders company,philadelphia 805 pp. 49.95. Journal of Hand
Therapy, 11(4):286 –, 1998.

- Siegler, S, et al., Mechanics of the ankle and subtalar joints
revealed through a 3d quasi-static stress mri technique. J Biomech,
38(3):567–578, Mar 2005.

- Sooriakumaran, P and Sivananthan, S. Why does man have a quadratus
plantae? a review of its comparative anatomy. Croat Med J,
46(1):30–35, Feb 2005.

- Stagni, R., et al., Ligament fibre recruitment at the human ankle
joint complex in passive flexion. J Biomech, 37(12):1823–1829, Dec
2004.

- Taniguchi, A. et al., Anat. of the spring ligament. J Bone Joint Surg
Am, 85-A(11):2174–2178, 2003.

- Ward, KA and R. W. Soames. Morphology of the plantar calcaneocuboid
ligaments. Foot Ankle Int, 18(10):649–653, Oct 1997.

- Winson, IC., et al., Metatarsal motion. The Foot, 5(2):91 – 94, 1995.

- Winson, IC., et al., Passive regulation of impact forces in heel-toe
running. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 13(7):521–531, Oct 1998.